Strength and Conditioning Coaches' Perceptions of Sport Psychology Strategies.

ABSTRACT: Quartiroli, A, Moore, EWG, and Zakrajsek, RA. Strength and conditioning coaches' perceptions of sport psychology strategies. . J Strength Cond Res 36(5): 1327-1334, 2022-Strength and conditioning coaches (SCCs) hold a central role in the development of student-athletes. Although they certainly focus on student-athletes' physical skill development, SCCs are in an ideal position to integrate mental skills into their strength and conditioning sessions. For example, sport psychology (SP) strategies can be used within strength and conditioning sessions to assist in athlete exercise execution by regulating arousal, improving concentration, confidence, as well as improve self-correction through self-talk and imagery. The purpose of this study was to assess collegiate SCCs' use of SP skills/strategies. A total sample of 415 SCCs (19.7% return rate) across the United States participated in an online survey. Although the majority of these coaches reported having less than moderate training in SP (59.9%), they also reported a moderate to high use of certain SP strategies (e.g., goal setting, self-talk). Strength and conditioning coaches' familiarity with, knowledge of, and confidence to use the SP strategies were found to be predictors of SCCs' frequency of SP strategy use. This study aimed to provide an initial exploration of SCCs' understanding and use of specific SP strategies, which was influenced by the SCCs' perceived level of preparation to use these strategies. For SCCs to be able to purposefully and confidently incorporate SP strategies into training sessions, the current study suggests the need for specific training aimed to enhance the SCCs' knowledge of and confidence in using specific SP strategies.

Mental performance and mental health services in sport: a call for interprofessional competence and collaboration.

The provision of holistic care for athletes often involves interprofessional teams with specialists to support athletic performance and overall wellness. Yet, regarding psychological support, some have advocated for a single professional to attain both a certified mental performance consultant (CMPC) credential and any type of mental health license (e.g., Licensed Psychologist [LP], Licensed Social Worker [LSW], or Licensed Professional Counselor [LPC]) to address the mental performance and mental health needs of athletes. Unfortunately, this approach may hinder interprofessional collaboration and ignore distinctions between CMPCS and other types of mental health professionals. Alternatively, CMPCs and various types of mental health professionals may work together on interprofessional psychological support teams. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the distinct historical and theoretical foundations of mental performance consulting, clinical psychology, social work, and professional counseling in sport contexts to serve as a resource for enhancing interprofessional competence within such teams. The distinct training pathways of CMPCs, LPs, LSWs, and LPCs are outlined with attention to how each can serve a valuable role on an interprofessional support team for athletes. Applications of the World Health Organization's framework for interprofessional education and collaborative practice (IPECP) to psychological support teams in sport contexts is discussed.

Applying P-Technique Factor Analysis to Explore Person-Specific Models of Readiness-to-Exercise.

Recent research in exercise prescription and periodization has emphasized the importance of subjective experience, both in medium- and long-term monitoring, but also in the acute experience. Emerging evidence also highlights an important role of subjective readiness (pre-exercise mental and physical states) in determining how exercise is experienced, and in acutely modifying the prescribed exercise intensity. The concept of "readiness-to-exercise" shows promise in enabling and informing this acute decision-making to optimize the experiences and outcomes of exercise. While subjective experiences can be effectively assessed using psychometric scales and instruments, these are often developed and deployed using cross-sectional samples, with resulting structures that reflect a normative pattern (nomothetic). These patterns may fail to reflect individual differences in sensitivity, experience and saliency (idiographic). We conducted this research with the primary aim of comparing the nomothetical and idiographic approaches to modeling the relatively novel concept of readiness-to-exercise. Study 1 (nomothetic) therefore analyzed data collected from 572 participants who completed a one-time survey using R-technique factor analysis. Results indicated a four-factor structure that explained 60% of the variance: "health and fitness;" "fatigue;" "vitality" and "physical discomfort." Study 2 (idiographic) included a sample of 29 participants who completed the scale multiple times, between 42 and 56 times: permitting intra-individual analysis using separate P-technique factor analyses. Our analyses suggested that many individuals displayed personal signature, or "profiles" of readiness-to-exercise that differed in structure from the nomothetic form: only two participants' personal signatures contained four structures as modeled in Study 1, whereas the majority demonstrated either two or three factors. These findings raise important questions about how experiential data should be collected and modeled, for use in research (conceptual development and measurement) and applied practice (prescribing, monitoring)-as well as in more applied research (implementation, effectiveness).

Perceived cadre behavior, basic psychological need satisfaction, and motivation of US Army ROTC cadets: A self-determination theory perspective.

Since its inception in 1916 the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) has trained and commissioned more than half a million individuals and, therefore, produced more officers for the United States (US) Army than any other commissioning source (US Army, 2020a). However, there have been high attrition rates among cadets. While the reasons for people's engagement in the military are complex and include a multitude of tangible and intangible factors, motivation has been found to be a vital contributor to individuals' ongoing service in the armed forces. Accordingly, utilizing the framework of self-determination theory, the current research was designed to: (a) examine the validity and reliability of existing instruments in measuring cadets' perceived cadre behavior, basic psychological need satisfaction, and motivation, (b) assess cadets' perceived cadre behavior, basic psychological need satisfaction, and motivation, and (c) explore potential differences in cadets' perceived cadre behavior, basic psychological need satisfaction, and motivation based on their class in the program, age, gender, and race. A total of 728 US Army ROTC cadets participated in this survey-based study. Overall, individuals reported relatively high levels of involvement from their cadre, need fulfillment, and self-determined motivation. In contrast, they perceived limited autonomy support from their cadre. In sum, further research appears warranted to gain an in-depth understanding of cadets' motivation.

Readiness to Perform Aerobic Activity in Adults With Obesity: A Thematic Analysis of Online Surveys.

Flexible nonlinear periodization (FNLP) was designed to optimize sport-specific resistance training by matching bout demand to pre-exercise mental and physical states ("readiness to train"). Before applying this participant-responsive framework to aerobic prescriptions for inactive adults, operational definitions of readiness are needed. Purpose: To identify themes underlying readiness to perform aerobic bouts considered to be low-demand bouts (LDB) and high-demand bouts (HDB) in adults with obesity. Method: Using Qualtrics, 1,059 respondents initiated the online survey. Quality responses from adults with obesity (N = 112) were analyzed. Respondents described physical and mental states necessary to complete an LDB (10-min slow stroll) and an HDB (60-min jog). Data were assessed using content and thematic analyses. Results: Respondents (57% female) could be classified with class II obesity (35 ± 5 kg/m2) and were 48 ± 12 years old. One theme, body integrity (no pain//illness) emerged for both the LDB and HDB. Regarding affect/arousal, both bouts required the need to feel rested and in a positive mood, but the HDB required higher states of arousal ("pumped up"). Specific to the LDB, a recurring theme suggested that it could be completed under normal or worse (hungry, sick) circumstances. Specific to the HDB were themes relating to physical fitness, proper fueling ("hydrated," "not hungry but not too full"), and enhanced motivation ("determination," "focus," "confidence"). Conclusions: These uncovered themes provide empirical evidence to guide the construction of a readiness checklist that can be further validated and applied in adults with obesity undergoing an FNLP-based aerobic exercise prescription.

Athletic Trainers' Influence on National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Athletes' Basic Psychological Needs During Sport Injury Rehabilitation.

CONTEXT: Athletic trainers (ATs) have indicated a desire to better understand the motivations of athletes during rehabilitation. Self-determination theory offers an ideal lens for conceptualizing the antecedents, mediators, and consequences of motivated behavior. OBJECTIVE: To explore athletes' perceptions of ATs' influence on their basic psychological needs as well as their motivation during sport injury rehabilitation. DESIGN: Qualitative study. SETTING: National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I universities in the northwestern and southeastern United States. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: A total of 10 injured and previously injured athletes (7 women, 3 men; mean age = 20.9 ± 2.0 years) active in a variety of sports. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Participants completed semistructured interviews, which were transcribed verbatim. The data were analyzed using consensual qualitative research methods. Trustworthiness techniques (eg, bracketing interview, discussion of biases, member checking, external auditor) were used throughout the process. RESULTS: Four domains were constructed: (a) athletes' concerns about injury and rehabilitation, (b) ATs' feedback and athletes' perceptions of competence, (c) a person-centered approach from ATs and athletes' perceptions of autonomy, and (d) a connection between ATs' and athletes' perceptions of relatedness. Athletes' experiences were largely influenced by the degree to which they perceived that ATs satisfied their 3 basic psychological needs, which, in turn, was determined by the presence or absence of particular AT behaviors, such as providing encouragement (competence), soliciting input (autonomy), and building rapport (relatedness). Furthermore, the degree to which they perceived these basic psychological needs were fulfilled (or thwarted) affected their overall motivation during sport injury rehabilitation. CONCLUSIONS: Self-determination theory is a promising framework for ATs to consider when addressing motivational challenges among injured athletes.

Determining Dimensionality of Exercise Readiness Using Exploratory Factor Analysis.

Assessment of "exercise readiness" is a central component to the flexible non-linear periodization (FNLP) method of organizing training workloads, but the underlying factor structure of this construct has not been empirically determined. The purpose of this study was to assess construct dimensionality of exercise readiness using exploratory factor analysis. The result of which serve as initial steps of developing a brief measure of exercise readiness. Participants consisted of students recruited from undergraduate Kinesiology courses at a racially diverse, southern University. Independent, anonymous online survey data were collected across three stages: 1) generation of item pool (n = 290), 2) assessment of face validity and refinement of item pool (n = 168), and 3) exploratory factor analysis (n = 684). A principal axis factor analysis was conducted with 41 items using oblique rotation (promax). Four statistically significant factors, as determined through parallel analysis, explained 61.5% of the variance in exercise readiness. Factor 1 contained items that represented vitality (e.g., lively, revived). Factor 2 items related to physical fatigue (e.g. tired, drained). Factors 3 and 4 were descriptive of, discomfort (e.g. pain, sick) and health (i.e. healthy, fit), respectively. This inductive approach indicates that exercise readiness is comprised of four dimensions: vitality, physical fatigue, discomfort, and health. This finding supports readiness assessment techniques currently recommended for practitioners according to the FNLP model. These results serve as a theoretical foundation upon which to further develop and refine a brief survey instrument to measure exercise readiness. Key pointsAssessment of exercise readiness is a key component in implementing an exercise program based on flexible nonlinear periodization, but the dimensionality of this concept has not been empirically determined.Based on a series of surveys and a robust exploratory factor analysis, exercise readiness appears to be supported by 4 dimensions: vitality, physical fatigue, discomfort, and health.These findings prove a theoretical basis to construct a brief, multidimensional measure of exercise readiness.

National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Certified Athletic Trainers' Perceptions of the Benefits of Sport Psychology Services.

CONTEXT: Certified athletic trainers (ATs) are responsible for integrating relevant professionals into the rehabilitation team to assist with the holistic care of injured athletes. OBJECTIVE: To explore National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I (DI) ATs' experience with sport psychology consultants (SPCs), willingness to encourage athletes to use SPCs for injury rehabilitation, and perceptions of the benefits of sport psychology services. DESIGN: Quantitative study. SETTING: A Web-based survey was administered to a national sample of DI ATs. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: A total of 659 (341 men, 318 women) ATs completed the survey. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Athletic trainers' experience with SPCs, willingness to encourage athletes to seek sport psychology services, and perceptions of the benefits of those services in injury-rehabilitation settings were self-reported using a rating scale that ranged from 1 (never or not at all) to 5 (definitely or extremely). RESULTS: Logistic regression revealed that the availability of SPCs, previous encouragement to athletes to seek sport psychology services, and previous positive interactions with SPCs predicted the ATs' willingness to encourage athletes to use these services (P < .0001). The services ATs rated the highest for injury rehabilitation were managing anxiety and emotion, improving coping techniques, and building confidence (ie, confidence in returning to sport and building confidence). Chi-square analyses indicated that female ATs' ratings of perceived benefits were higher (P ≤ .001) than those of male ATs, and the ratings of ATs who were likely to encourage the use of SPCs were higher (P ≤ .001) than those who were unlikely to encourage SPC service use. CONCLUSIONS: Athletic trainers in our study who had previous positive SPC experiences were most likely to use SPCs and their services during the injury-rehabilitation process. Possible implications are offered for how ATs interested in sport psychology services might call on SPCs to complement their work with injured athletes.

Stages of psychological impact after diagnosis with serious or potentially lethal cardiac disease in young competitive athletes: a new model.

IMPORTANCE: Sudden cardiac death (SCD) in sports is a tragic event. Pre-participation cardiovascular screening is required before participation in high school and college athletic programs and is universally endorsed by major medical societies. The medical impact of a diagnosis may be life-saving; however, the detection of disease should not be the sole endpoint of care. Physicians have an obligation to attend to both the medical and psychological well-being of their patients. OBJECTIVE: To determine the psychological impact of being diagnosed with cardiac disease in young competitive athletes. DESIGN: Athletes diagnosed with cardiac conditions were recruited to participate in a semi-structured interview, which was analyzed by sport psychology experts using qualitative research. Individuals shared reactions and experiences regarding diagnosis, lifestyle implications, coping strategies, major concerns, and overall impact on psychosocial functioning. SETTING: Young competitive athletes from across the United States. PARTICIPANTS: 25 athletes (52% male, 80% Caucasian, median age 17.7) participated. Diagnoses included: 5 hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 8 Wolff Parkinson White, 4 long QT syndrome, 3 atrial septal defect, 2 supraventricular tachycardia, and 3 other. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Interviews were analyzed using consensual qualitative research (CQR) to identify domains, categories, and core ideas. RESULTS: Athletes progressed through 4 stages of psychological impact including: 1) immediate reactions and challenge to athlete identity, 2) grief/coping, 3) adaptation, and 4) acceptance. Risk factors for increased psychological morbidity included: higher level of competition, permanent disqualification from sports, persistent reminders (e.g. daily medication, monitoring heart rate during activity), and unanticipated outcomes (e.g. failed procedures). Those undergoing simple corrective procedures came to terms with their diagnosis quickly with little impact on daily life. Few athletes described emotional support mechanisms provided by medical programs. Diagnosis often led to new goals such as mentoring or coaching. All athletes diagnosed through advanced cardiovascular screening stated they would repeat the process. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Athletes diagnosed with cardiac disease represent an emotionally vulnerable population and experience 4 stages of psychological adjustment not previously described. This proposed model of psychological impact should be used to develop improved support mechanisms, awareness, and education to assist athletes diagnosed with serious or potentially lethal cardiac disease.

Athletes' use of mental skills during sport injury rehabilitation.

CONTEXT: Existing theoretical frameworks and empirical research support the applicability and usefulness of integrating mental skills throughout sport injury rehabilitation. OBJECTIVE: To determine what, if any, mental skills athletes use during injury rehabilitation, and by who these skills were taught. Cross-cultural differences were also examined. DESIGN: Cross-sectional design. SETTING: College athletes from 5 universities in the United States and a mixture of collegiate, professional, and recreational club athletes from the United Kingdom and Finland were recruited for this study. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1283 athletes from the United States, United Kingdom, and Finland, who participated in diverse sports at varying competitive levels took part in this study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: As part of a larger study on athletes' expectations of injury rehabilitation, participants were asked a series of open-ended and closed-ended questions concerning their use of mental skills during injury rehabilitation. RESULTS: Over half (64.0%) of the sample reported previous experience with athletic training, while 27.0% indicated that they used mental skills during injury rehabilitation. The top 3 mental skills reported were goal setting, positive self-talk/positive thoughts, and imagery. Of those athletes that used mental skills, 71.6% indicated that they felt mental skills helped them to rehabilitate faster. A greater proportion of athletes from the United States (33.4%) reported that they used mental skills during rehabilitation compared with athletes from the United Kingdom (23.4%) and Finland (20.3%). A small portion (27.6%) of the participants indicated that their sports medicine professional had taught them how to use mental skills; only 3% were taught mental skills by a sport psychologist. CONCLUSIONS: The low number of athletes who reported using mental skills during rehabilitation is discouraging, but not surprising given research findings that mental skills are underutilized by injured athletes in the 3 countries examined. More effort should be focused on educating and training athletes, coaches, and sports medicine professionals on the effectiveness of mental training in the injury rehabilitation context.

The effect of motor imagery and static stretching on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists.

Athletes perform many different protocols as part of their warm-up routine before competition. Stretching has been suggested to decrease force and power production, whereas motor imagery (MI), the visualization of simple or complex motor activities in the absence of physical movement, may increase force and power production in young healthy individuals. Few studies have investigated either of these in trained individuals. No studies have compared the effects of static stretching (SS) with MI on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of SS compared with MI and quiet rest (QR) on anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. Thirteen trained cyclists (9 men: 4 women; aged 21 ± 2 years) were assessed for height (1.76 ± 0.07 m), weight (73.4 ± 13 kg), % body fat (10.8 ± 6.2%), and maximal oxygen consumption (V[Combining Dot Above]O(2)max of 42.0 ± 5.6 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)) on a cycle ergometer. The participants performed 3 randomized sessions consisting of cycling for 30 minutes at 65% of V[Combining Dot Above]O(2)max before undergoing 16 minutes of SS, MI, or QR followed by an anaerobic performance test. The SS consisted of 3 sets of 30-second stretches of the hamstrings, quadriceps, hip flexors, and piriformis. Imagery was based on the physical, environmental, task, learning, emotion, and perspective approach and was conducted by a trained technician. Both relative and absolute powers, and peak revolutions per minute, were quantified using the Wingate anaerobic threshold test. No significant interactions existed among SS, MI, and QR for relative peak power, absolute peak power, or peak RPM. In disagreement with current literature, this study suggests that neither SS nor a single session of MI immediately affect anaerobic performance in trained cyclists. If an event is <30 seconds, then SS or MI may not affect performance.

Biomechanical analysis of two standing sprint start techniques.

The purpose of this study was to examine any differences between the false step standing sprint start and a traditional forward step standing sprint start. Ten DI collegiate female soccer players performed 2 standing sprint starts (Forward step and False step). Each player was videotaped for the first 3 steps of each sprint start. Velocity, acceleration, and displacement were calculated at each of the 3 steps for both standing sprint start techniques. Velocity was significantly faster with the forward step for steps 1 and 2 but not with step 3. Displacement was significantly greater with the forward step for each of the 3 steps. Acceleration was greater with the false step for each step though differences were not significant. The results indicate the forward step outperforms the false step in both velocity and displacement. Even though the false step generates greater acceleration, the backward step drastically undercuts displacement nullifying acceleration. Controversy exists between these 2 standing sprint starts with proponents arguing for their favorite with no evidence to suggest one or the other. The results from this study suggest that the forward step is superior to the false step when the concern for an individual is to get from 1 point to the next as fast as possible.